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GNDU Question Paper – 2020

Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA) 2nd Semester

INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING IN-C++

Time Allowed – 3 Hours Maximum Marks-75

Note: There are Eight questions of equal marks. Candidates are required to attempt any

Four questions.

1. Discuss some important features of object oriented programming

2. Write short notes on

a) Abstraction

b) Data hiding

3. Write short notes on:

(a) 1/0 using cout and cin

(b) Objects and classes

4. Discuss various types of constructors with suitable program segments.

5. What is Function overloading? Explain.

6. Briefly explain the following terms:

(a) Overloading unary and binary operators

(b) Operator overloading.

7. What are the different forms of Inheritance ? Give an example for each

8. Write short notes on

(a) Types of Polymorphin

(b) Virtual function.

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GNDU Answer Paper 2020

Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA) 2nd Semester

INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING IN-C++

1.Discuss some important features of object oriented programming

Ans: 1. Objects:

Objects are like building blocks in OOP. They represent real-world entities, like a car, a dog,

or a person.

An object combines data and functions that work on the data into a single unit.

For example, if you have a 'car' object, it might have data like 'color' and 'model,' and

functions like 'start' and 'stop.'

2. Classes:

• A class is like a blueprint or a template for creating objects.

• If an object is a house, a class is the architectural plan for building that house.

• It defines the properties (attributes) and behaviors (methods) that the objects

created from it will have.

3. Encapsulation:

• Encapsulation is like putting data and the methods that work on the data into a

single unit, i.e., an object.

• It helps in hiding the internal workings of an object and only exposing what is

necessary.

• Imagine a TV remote – you don’t need to know how it works internally; you just

press the buttons.

4. Inheritance:

• Inheritance is a way to create a new class using properties and behaviors of an

existing class.

• It promotes code reusability and allows you to create a more specialized class

without starting from scratch.

• Think of it as a family tree – a child inherits certain traits and characteristics from

their parents.

5. Polymorphism:

Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common base

class.

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It enables a single interface to be used for different types of objects.

An example could be a function that can work with different types of shapes (circle, square,

triangle) without knowing the exact type.

6. Abstraction:

• Abstraction is simplifying complex systems by modeling classes based on the

essential properties and behaviors.

• It helps in focusing on what an object does rather than how it achieves what it does.

• For instance, when you drive a car, you don't need to understand the intricate

details of the engine; you just use the accelerator, brake, and steering wheel.

7. Modularity:

• Modularity is breaking down a program into smaller, manageable parts (modules)

that can be developed and maintained independently.

• Each class is like a module, focusing on a specific aspect of the overall program.

• It makes the code more organized and easier to understand.

8. Message Passing:

• Objects in OOP communicate with each other by sending messages.

• When an object wants another object to perform one of its methods, it sends a

message, and the receiving object responds by executing the method.

• It's like leaving a note for your friend – you request something, and they respond

accordingly.

9. Constructors and Destructors:

• Constructors are special methods called when an object is created. They initialize the

object's attributes.

• Destructors, on the other hand, are called when an object is destroyed and are used

for cleanup.

• It's like building a house (constructor) and demolishing it (destructor) when it's no

longer needed.

10. Overloading:

• Overloading allows defining multiple methods with the same name but different

parameters in the same class.

• It adds flexibility to the program, as the same method can perform different actions

based on the number or type of parameters.

• Think of it as a chef having different recipes for the same dish – spaghetti with

meatballs or without.

In summary, Object-Oriented Programming is a way of designing and organizing code based

on real-world entities and their interactions. It promotes concepts like encapsulation,

inheritance, polymorphism, and abstraction to create modular, reusable, and maintainable

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code. Using classes and objects, OOP provides a structured approach to software

development, making it easier to understand, modify, and extend code.

2. Write short notes on

(a) Abstraction

(b) Data hiding

Ans: Abstraction:

Abstraction is a fancy word that means simplifying things by focusing on what's important

and ignoring the details that aren't. It's like looking at a car from the outside without

worrying about how the engine works.

In programming, abstraction helps us manage complexity. Instead of dealing with all the

intricate inner workings of a system, we create a simplified model that includes only the

essential features. It's a bit like playing with a toy car rather than fixing a real one – you get

to enjoy the fun parts without getting your hands dirty.

Here's a breakdown of abstraction in simple terms:

• Focus on the Essential: Abstraction allows us to concentrate on the important

aspects of an object or system without getting bogged down by every little detail.

For example, when using a microwave, we don't need to understand the complex

electronics inside; we just set the time and press start.

• Hide the Complexity: Think of abstraction as a magic trick that hides the complicated

stuff behind the scenes. When you use your TV remote, you don't need to know how

the signals travel or how the buttons work – you just click and watch.

• Create Models: Abstraction lets us create models or representations that capture

the key features of something. If you're drawing a cat, you don't include every single

hair – just the main features that make it recognizable as a cat.

• Simplify Communication: In programming, abstraction helps simplify

communication between different parts of a system. When a program needs to

interact with a printer, it doesn't need to know the printer's internal processes – it

sends a print command, and the printer knows what to do.

• Ease of Understanding: Abstraction makes things easier to understand. If you're

explaining how a car works to a friend, you might skip the intricate details of the

engine and focus on how the steering wheel, accelerator, and brakes function –

that's abstraction in action.

• Reduce Complexity: By abstracting away unnecessary details, we reduce the

complexity of a problem. It's like solving a puzzle – you don't need to think about

every piece at once, just the ones that fit together.

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• Generalization: Abstraction involves generalizing common features. If you're talking

about vehicles, you might discuss common traits like having wheels and an engine,

without getting into specifics like the number of doors each type of vehicle has.

• Application in Programming: In programming, abstraction is crucial for creating

user-friendly interfaces. When you use a software application, you interact with

buttons, menus, and icons – not lines of complex code. The underlying code is

abstracted away, making the software more accessible to users.

b.Data Hiding:

Data hiding is a bit like keeping a secret. In programming, it's about protecting certain

details of how an object works from the outside world. It's like hiding the wiring of a toy

robot inside its plastic shell – you don't need to know how it operates, just how to play with

it.

Let's delve into data hiding using simple terms:

1. Protecting Information: Data hiding is like putting a lock on information. Some

details about how an object or a class works are kept hidden and can only be

accessed in specific ways. It's a bit like not sharing your secret cookie recipe.

2. Preventing Unwanted Access: Imagine a treasure chest – you want to keep it secure.

Data hiding ensures that only certain parts of your code can access or modify specific

data. It's a way to prevent unwanted interference.

3. Encapsulation at Play: Data hiding is closely related to encapsulation, where you

bundle data and the methods that operate on the data into a single unit (an object).

This helps in controlling access to the internal details of an object.

4. Improving Security: Just as you wouldn't want everyone to know the password to

your phone, data hiding enhances security in software. It ensures that critical

information is safeguarded and can't be easily tampered with.

5. Simplifying Interfaces: When you use a TV remote, you don't see the intricate

electronics inside – data hiding is at play. The remote provides a simple interface

(buttons) to interact with the TV without exposing the complex circuitry.

6. Minimizing Dependencies: Data hiding reduces dependencies between different

parts of a program. It's like having separate compartments in a toolbox – each tool

(data) is kept in its place, and you only take out what you need when you need it.

7. Enhancing Flexibility: By hiding the internal details of how something works, data

hiding makes it easier to make changes or improvements without affecting the rest

of the program. It's like upgrading your computer's hardware without having to

relearn how to use it.

8. Improving Maintenance: When fixing a broken toy, you don't need to understand

every gear and wire inside – data hiding simplifies maintenance by allowing you to

focus on the specific parts that need attention.

9. Private and Public: In programming, data hiding often involves declaring certain

aspects of a class as private, meaning they can only be accessed from within the

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class. Other parts may be public, allowing external code to interact with the class

without delving into its internal details.

10. Application in Real Life: Consider a car – you don't need to know the intricacies of

the engine to drive it. The engine details are hidden, and you interact with the car

through a simple interface of pedals and a steering wheel.

In essence, data hiding is about maintaining a level of privacy within your code,

ensuring that not everything is laid bare to the outside world. It's a fundamental

aspect of building robust and secure software systems.

3. Write short notes on:

(a) 1/0 using cout and cin

(b) Objects and classes

Ans: 1/0 using cout and cin:

Alright, let's talk about 1/0 using cout and cin in the world of programming. These are like

magic words that help us communicate with the computer – telling it what to show and

asking it to listen.

a) cout (pronounced "see-out"):

What is cout?

• Think of cout as a way for your program to talk back to you. It's like your program

raising its hand saying, "Hey, I want to tell you something!"

• When you use cout, you're basically telling the computer to display something on

the screen.

How to use cout:

• Suppose you want to tell the computer to say "Hello, World!" on the screen. You'd

write: cout << "Hello, World!";

• The << is like a conveyor belt that takes what's on the right (in this case, our

message) and puts it on the screen.

Numbers and Math with cout:

You can also use cout to show numbers and do math. For example: cout << 5 + 3; will display

Making Sentences with cout:

Want to make a sentence? No problem! You can combine words and numbers: cout << "I

have " << 3 << " apples."; will show "I have 3 apples."

b) cin (pronounced "see-in"):

What is cin?

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• Now, if cout is your program talking to you, cin is like your program listening to what

you have to say. It's waiting for your input.

• When you use cin, you're telling the computer, "Hey, get ready, I'm going to tell you

something!"

How to use cin:

• Suppose you want to tell the computer your age. You'd write: int age; cin >> age;

• Here, int age; is like saying, "I'm going to tell you an integer (a whole number), and

I'll call it 'age'." Then cin >> age; means "Listen for what I'm going to say and put it in

'age'."

Asking Questions with cin:

You can also ask the user for information: cout << "What's your name? "; string name; cin

>> name;

Here, you're printing a question with cout and then using cin to wait for the user to type

their name.

Mixing cout and cin:

You can combine cout and cin to have a conversation with the computer. For example:

Dealing with Different Types:

• Notice that when you use cin, you need to tell the computer what kind of

information to expect. If it's a number, use int. If it's words, use string.

• In a nutshell, cout is like your program talking to you, showing things on the screen,

and cin is like your program listening to what you have to say, waiting for your input.

It's a way for your program to interact with you, creating a back-and-forth

conversation.

b. Objects and Classes:

Now, let's dive into the fascinating world of objects and classes. Imagine you're building a

city with skyscrapers – each skyscraper is a building block, and the blueprint you use to

construct them is the class. Let's break it down:

a) Objects:

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What is an Object?

An object is like a character in a story or a player in a game. It's a thing with its own set of

characteristics (called properties or attributes) and actions it can perform (called methods).

Real-world Example:

Think of a car as an object. It has properties like color, model, and speed. It can do things

like start, stop, and honk. Each specific car you see on the road is an instance of the car

object.

Creating Objects in Code:

In code, you create objects based on a blueprint, and that blueprint is a class. For example, if

you have a class called Car, you can create individual car objects like myCar or yourCar.

Properties and Methods:

• Properties are like the characteristics of an object. For a car, properties could be

color, model, and speed.

• Methods are the things an object can do. For a car, methods could be starting the

engine, stopping, or changing gears.

Example in Code:

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Creating and Using Objects:

b) Classes:

What is a Class?

• A class is like a blueprint or a template for creating objects. It defines what

properties and methods an object will have.

• Going back to our skyscraper analogy, a class is the plan that tells you how to build

each skyscraper.

Real-world Example:

If you have a class called Dog, it would define what every dog object should look like –

properties like breed and age, and methods like bark and fetch.

Properties and Methods in Classes:

• Properties in a class are like the characteristics all objects of that class will have.

• Methods are like the actions all objects of that class will be able to perform.

Encapsulation:

• Classes help with encapsulation, which is like putting things in a box. You hide the

messy details inside the box (class), and the outside world (the rest of your program)

only interacts with what's necessary.

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Example in Code:

Creating Objects from Classes:

4. Discuss various types of constructors with suitable program segments.

Ans: Certainly! Let's talk about constructors in a way that's easy to understand. Constructors

are like the welcome committee for objects in programming. They get things ready when an

object is created. Imagine you're building a house, and constructors are the folks making

sure everything is set up before you move in.

1. What is a Constructor?

A constructor is a special method in a class that gets called when you create an object from

that class. It's like a set of instructions that tell the object how to get started.

2. Why Do We Need Constructors?

Imagine you're building a robot. Before you can use it, you need to assemble its parts, set its

initial settings, and maybe even give it a name. That's what constructors do for objects –

they initialize them.

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3. Types of Constructors:

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4. Putting Constructors into Action:

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5. In Summary:

• Constructors are like the first steps in bringing an object to life in programming.

• Default constructors give objects default values.

• Parameterized constructors allow you to customize objects when creating them.

• Copy constructors clone objects.

• Destructors clean up after objects when they're no longer needed.

• Constructors help make objects ready for action, setting them up with the right

information and behaviors from the get-go. They're like the friendly hosts ensuring

everything is in place before the object joins the party in your program.

5. What is Function overloading? Explain.

Ans: Absolutely! Let's dive into the world of function overloading in a simple and easy-to-

understand way. Think of function overloading as a way for your program to be smart about

handling different situations. It's like having a chef who can cook different dishes using the

same kitchen tools but with slight variations.

1. What is Function Overloading?

Imagine a Kitchen:

Picture a kitchen with various utensils – a pot, a pan, and a spatula. Now, think of each

utensil as a function. The pot boils, the pan fries, and the spatula flips. These functions

perform different tasks, just like our utensils.

What if You Have Similar Tasks?

Now, what if you want to flip both pancakes and burgers? The spatula can handle it, right?

That's a bit like function overloading. You have a tool (function) that can do slightly different

things based on what you're cooking.

2. Function Basics:

What is a Function?

• In programming, a function is like a set of instructions. It's a way to tell the computer

to do something specific.

• Example: You might have a function called cookPancakes() that tells the computer

how to cook pancakes.

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How Functions Work:

When you call a function, you're telling the computer, "Hey, go follow the instructions in

this function!" It's like telling the chef in our kitchen to use the spatula to flip pancakes.

What if You Have Similar Tasks?

Sometimes, you might have tasks that are pretty similar but not exactly the same. For

instance, flipping pancakes and flipping burgers both involve flipping, but there are some

differences.

3. The Magic of Function Overloading:

What is Function Overloading?

Function overloading is like having a super spatula that knows how to flip pancakes gently

and burgers with a bit more force. It's the ability to have multiple functions with the same

name but slightly different ways of doing things.

When Does it Happen?

Function overloading happens when you have two or more functions with the same name in

a program. The computer is smart enough to figure out which one to use based on what

you're asking it to do.

How Does it Work?

Imagine you have a function called flip(). Depending on what you're cooking (pancakes or

burgers), the computer knows which version of flip() to use.

4. Examples of Function Overloading:

Flipping Pancakes:

Flipping Burgers:

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Using the Super Spatula:

Outcome:

5. Making Sense of Function Overloading:

Why Do We Need It?

Function overloading makes our programs flexible. It's like having tools in the kitchen that

can adapt to different recipes. One spatula can handle various flipping tasks.

Common Scenario:

• Think about a calculator. You might want to add two numbers or three numbers or

even add numbers of different types (integers, decimals). Function overloading

allows the calculator to understand what you're asking for and provide the right

answer.

Understanding Parameters:

In our kitchen, the force parameter in the burger flip function is like adding a bit of extra

oomph to the spatula flip. Function overloading lets you use parameters to customize the

function's behavior.

Clear and Readable Code:

When you see a function called calculate(), you might not know if it's adding, subtracting, or

doing something else. With function overloading, you can have calculate() for adding and

calculate(int) for subtracting – it makes the code clearer.

6. The Magic Behind the Scenes:

How Does the Computer Know?

When you call a function, the computer looks at the number and types of arguments you

provide. Based on that information, it figures out which version of the function to use.

Example with Add Function:

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Using the Add Functions:

Outcome:

12 6

7. Function Overloading Guidelines:

1. Different Parameter Types:

You can overload functions based on different parameter types. For example, having

one calculate(int) and another calculate(double).

2. Different Number of Parameters:

You can also overload based on the number of parameters. One function might be

calculate(int) and another calculate(int, int).

3. Careful with Similar Signatures:

The computer needs to be able to tell the functions apart. If you have two functions

with the same name and the exact same parameters, it will get confused.

4. Return Type Doesn't Matter:

The return type alone is not enough to differentiate functions. You can't have two

functions with the same name and parameters but different return types.

8. Real-world Analogy:

• Menu in a Restaurant:

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Think of a restaurant menu. You might have a dish called "Pasta," but the menu

specifies different versions like "Vegetarian Pasta" or "Spicy Chicken Pasta." The

kitchen knows how to make the right dish based on what the customer orders.

• Same Name, Different Variations:

The dish name (function name) is the same, but the variations (parameter types or

numbers) make it clear what the customer wants.

• Serving Different Tastes:

Function overloading is like a versatile chef who can create multiple versions of a

dish to cater to different tastes.

9. In Summary:

• Function overloading is like having a versatile tool in your programming kitchen.

• It allows functions with the same name to perform slightly different tasks based on

parameters.

• You can have different versions of a function to handle various scenarios.

• It makes your code flexible, readable, and adaptable to different situations.

6. Briefly explain the following terms:

(a) Overloading unary and binary operators

(b) Operator overloading.

Ans: a) Overloading Unary and Binary Operators:

Let's embark on a journey to understand what overloading unary and binary operators

means. Don't worry; we'll keep it simple and fun, like decoding a secret language in your

favorite game.

1. What are Unary and Binary Operators?

Unary Operators:

Unary operators are like solo performers; they operate on a single operand (a single thing).

Think of them as actions that happen to one item.

• Example: If you have a variable x, the unary operator - can turn it into its negative

counterpart, like turning 5 into -5.

Binary Operators:

Binary operators are like dynamic duos; they work on two operands (two things). They're

the dynamic interactions between pairs of items.

• Example: The + operator in 3 + 4 is a binary operator, adding the numbers 3 and 4

together.

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2. What Does Overloading Mean in This Context?

Imagine a Decoder Ring:

Picture a decoder ring – it's a magical tool that can understand different symbols. Now,

think of overloading as giving this ring the ability to decipher not just one symbol but

multiple symbols based on context.

3. Overloading Unary Operators:

Unary Minus Operator (-):

The unary minus operator can be overloaded to work with custom types. If you have a class

representing a point in space, overloading the unary minus allows you to negate its

coordinates.

Example:

Usage:

3, -4)

Unary Increment Operator (++):

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The unary increment operator can be overloaded to customize how an object is

incremented.

Example:

Usage:

4. Overloading Binary Operators:

Custom Addition Operator (+):

The binary plus operator can be overloaded to define how two objects of a custom class

should be added.

Example:

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Usage:

Custom Comparison Operator (==):

The binary equality operator can be overloaded to specify how two objects of a class should

be compared for equality

Example:

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Usage:

5. How Does Overloading Work?

Context Matters:

Just like our decoder ring understanding different symbols in different contexts, the

compiler understands which version of an operator to use based on the operands and the

operator being overloaded.

Keeping It Consistent:

If you're overloading the plus operator for a class, you can't make it subtract. The decoder

ring has its rules, and it expects you to play by them.

The Joy of Customization:

Overloading operators gives you the power to customize how your objects behave in

mathematical or comparison operations. It's like tailoring your clothes to fit just right.

6. Real-world Analogy:

Superhero Team-Up (Binary Operator):

Think of binary operator overloading as two superheroes teaming up for a mission. Batman

and Robin combine their skills, and together they are more powerful than each one

individually.

Solo Superhero Feats (Unary Operator):

Unary operator overloading is like a superhero showcasing individual feats. Superman can

fly, and Batman can use gadgets – each has its unique ability, like a unary operator doing a

specific action.

b. Operator Overloading:

Now, let's delve into the broader concept of operator overloading. It's like having a universal

remote control that can operate not just your TV but also your music system and lights.

1. What is Operator Overloading?

• Extending the Decoder Ring:

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Operator overloading is like adding new symbols to our decoder ring. It allows us to

redefine how standard operators work with custom types.

• Customizing the Symbols:

Just as you might have symbols for addition (+) and subtraction (-) on your

calculator, operator overloading lets you redefine what those symbols mean for your

custom classes.

2. Example of Operator Overloading:

• Using the '+' Operator:

Let's say we have a class representing a point in 2D space, and we want to use the +

operator to add two points together.

Example:

7. What are the different forms of Inheritance ? Give an example for each

Ans: Alright, let's embark on a journey through the fascinating world of inheritance in

programming. Think of inheritance as a way for classes to share and pass on their qualities,

like a family passing down its traditions and traits.

1. What is Inheritance?

Family Tree Analogy:

Imagine you have a family tree. Your grandparents pass down certain traits to your parents,

who then pass them down to you. Inheritance in programming is a bit like that – it's a

mechanism where a new class can inherit characteristics and behaviors from an existing

class.

Why Do We Need It?

Inheritance allows for code reuse. Instead of rewriting the same code in multiple places, you

can have a base class with common features, and other classes can inherit from it.

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2. Different Forms of Inheritance:

a) Single Inheritance:

Single inheritance is like inheriting traits from one parent only. It's a straightforward one-to-

one relationship.

Example: Animal Kingdom

Imagine we have a base class Animal with common traits like eat() and sleep(). Now, we

create a derived class Dog that inherits from Animal. The Dog class will have all the traits of

an Animal plus its specific traits.

• Now, if you create a Dog object, it can both eat and sleep because it inherited those

behaviors from the Animal class.

b) Multiple Inheritance:

Multiple inheritance is like inheriting traits from more than one parent. It's like having a

hybrid of characteristics.

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Example: Superhero Mix

Consider a scenario where you have a base class Human with basic traits. Then, you have

two superhero classes, FlyingHero and InvisibleHero, each with their unique abilities. Now,

you create a class Superhero that inherits from both FlyingHero and InvisibleHero.

• Now, a Superhero object can breathe, fly, turn invisible, and save the day, thanks to

multiple inheritance.

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c) Multilevel Inheritance:

Multilevel inheritance is like inheriting traits from a grandparent, then from a parent, and

finally from the child. It's a step-by-step transfer of characteristics.

Example: Educational Hierarchy

Consider a base class Person representing generic human traits. Then, you have a class

Student that inherits from Person and adds educational traits. Now, you create a class

Graduate that inherits from Student and adds graduate-level traits.

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• Now, a Graduate object inherits not only the ability to talk and study but also to

conduct research.

d) Hierarchical Inheritance:

Hierarchical inheritance is like having one base class, and multiple classes inherit from it. It's

like creating a hierarchy with a common ancestor.

Example: Vehicles on the Road

Think of a base class Vehicle representing common features of vehicles. Then, you have two

derived classes, Car and Bike, each inheriting from Vehicle.

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• Now, a Car and a Bike share the ability to start the engine but have their specific

methods.

3. In Summary:

• Inheritance is like a family tree for classes, passing down traits from one generation

to another.

• Single inheritance involves inheriting from one parent class, while multiple

inheritance involves inheriting from more than one.

• Multilevel inheritance is a step-by-step transfer of characteristics, and hierarchical

inheritance involves a common

8. Write short notes on

(a) Types of Polymorphin

(b) Virtual function.

Ans: (a) Types of Polymorphism:

Polymorphism is a concept in programming that allows objects of different types to be

treated as objects of a common type. There are two main types of polymorphism: compile-

time (or static) polymorphism and runtime (or dynamic) polymorphism.

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Compile-time (Static) Polymorphism:

Function Overloading: In simple terms, function overloading means having multiple

functions with the same name but different parameters. It's like having a TV remote that

can perform various functions depending on the buttons you press.

Operator Overloading: This is similar to function overloading but applies to operators like +,

-, *, etc. It allows you to use operators with custom data types, making code more intuitive.

Think of it like using a calculator that can add not only numbers but also words or other

types of data.

Runtime (Dynamic) Polymorphism:

Function Overriding: Inheritance is a key concept here. If a class inherits from another class,

it can provide a specific implementation for a method already defined in its parent class. It's

like a car having the same type of steering wheel but with different features based on the

model.

Virtual Functions: A virtual function is a function in a base class that is declared using the

keyword "virtual." This allows a derived class to provide a specific implementation of that

function. It's like having a blueprint for a house where each room can be customized

differently.

Pure Virtual Functions: These are virtual functions that are declared in a base class but have

no implementation. They act as placeholders, and any derived class must provide an

implementation. Think of it as a puzzle piece that must be filled in by each specific type of

derived class.

(b) Virtual Function:

A virtual function is like a special instruction in programming that tells the computer, "Hey,

this function might be overridden by a derived class. Pay attention!"

Why Virtual Functions?

Imagine you have a base class called "Animal" with a function called "makeSound." Now,

different animals make different sounds. If you mark "makeSound" as virtual, a derived class

like "Dog" can have its own version of "makeSound" (like barking), and the program will use

that specific version when dealing with a dog object.

How It Works:

When a function is declared as virtual in a base class, the derived classes can provide their

own implementation. This is particularly useful when dealing with a collection of objects of

different types, but you want to call a common function on all of them without knowing

their exact types.

Example:

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• In this example, even though the pointer is of type "Animal," it calls the specific

"makeSound" of the "Dog" class, thanks to the virtual function mechanism.

Key Points:

Virtual functions are essential in achieving runtime polymorphism.

They allow a program to choose the appropriate function implementation at runtime based

on the actual type of the object.

In essence, polymorphism, whether compile-time or runtime, is like having a versatile tool

that adapts to different situations, making code more flexible and maintainable. Virtual

functions, in particular, play a crucial role in achieving this adaptability by allowing objects

to exhibit behavior specific to their actual types.

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